The Interspecific Hybrid Elaeis oleifera x E. guineensis :
A Solution for the Surinamese Oil Palm Industry.
_____________________________________________________________
SUMMARY
The Oil
Palm Industry in
the
disease 'Fatal Yellowing' (Speerrot, Pudrici¢n fatal
relecimiento Fatal). The causing agent of this condition remains
unknown
and
chances of finding a feasible cure any time soon appear extremely slim.
No trace
of tolerance has been found in E. guineensis germplasm, but inter-
specific
hybrids with E. oleifera invariably proved highly
tolerant, if not
resistant. The most promising way out of the present
impasse therefore
lies in
replanting devastated areas with such hybrids.
Interspecific hybrids until present do not seem competitive with commercial
E. guineensis in terms of Crude Palm Oil
production. However, indications
are that
they could well compete if output of Refined Palm Oil is conside-
red. For
is to
supply the local market with Refined Palm Olein, this
conclusion is
of utmost
importance.
This
article compiles the actual state of knowledge on yield potential of
interspecific hybrids and advocates a systematic inventarization and col-
lection
effort in wild populations of E. oleifera in
identify
parent palms for a commercial scale replanting programme,
to be
initiated
as soon as possible.
SAMENVATTING
Speerrot is
bezig de Surinaamse oliepalmindustrie van de kaart te vegen.
Tot op heden
is de oorzaak van deze aandoening onbekend en het ziet er niet
naar uit dat
er binnen afzienbare tijd een in de practijk toepasbare oplos-
sing voor
gevonden zal worden. Binnen het genus
Elaeis guineensis werd
geen enkele
vorm van tolerantie aangetroffen, doch interspecifieke kruisin-
gen met Elaeis
oleifera bleken steevast bijzonder tolerant, zoalniet resis-
tent. Herbeplanting met dergelijke hybriden lijkt
dus de meest belofte-
volle uitweg
uit de huidige patstelling.
Gepubliceerde
resultaten geven in het algemeen aan dat interspecifieke
hybriden niet
kunnen concurreren met commerci‰le E. guineensis inzake
productie van
Ruwe Palm Olie per Ha. Nader onderzoek
van deze resultaten
leert echter
dat zij de vergelijking waarschijnlijk w‚l aankunnen indien
men de
productiviteit beschouwt in termen van Geraffineerde Palm Olie.
Deze conclusie
is van het grootste belang voor Suriname, waar de ‚‚rste
opdracht van
de oliepalmindustrie bestaat in de spijsoliebevoorrading van
5de locale markt.
Dit artikel
vat de huidige stand van kennis inzake het productiepotentieel
van deze
hybriden samen en verdedigt een systematische inventarizatie van
het genetisch
potentieel in wilde opstanden van E. oleifera in Suriname.
De hierbij te
identificeren elitepalmen zullen dienen als ouders voor de
dringende grootschalige herbeplantingscampagne.
Introduction
The
American Oil Palm, Elaeis oleifera
(formerly also called E. melanococca
and Corozo m.) has aroused scientific
interest ever since the discovery of
its crossability with E. guineensis
back in the forties. In spite of pro-
mising initial results, only in very few occasions
the interspecific hybrid
has been
planted on a commercial scale. In all of
these cases, the inten-
tion was not to genetically improve the Oil Palm,
but to preserve the cul-
ture, mostly after extinction of the original E.g.
plantations by diseases
unknown in
its African regions of origin and against which no resistance
could be
found in pure bred progenies. Published
reports on the production
of these
plantings do not arouse enthousiasm but one cannot
omit to mention
that they
invariably have been implemented with virtually unselected E.o.
parents,
often from the immediate surroundings of the plantations. The
worst
results were obtained with germplasm of Central
American origin,
which is
known to have serious fertility problems.
As a
result, hopes of exploiting the desirable characters of the American
palm in
the culture crop shifted away from the straightforward F1 cross
toward
stabilization of individual characters into E.g.. No need to em-
phasize that this won't give practical results in any
near future.
Furthermore,
it remains to be proven that resistance against Fatal Yellow-
ing can be genetically stabilized in anything
beyond a F1. Several
searchers
therefore proposed the vegetative multiplication of individual
elite
hybrids. This method however will remain
unavailable to most
developing
countries for quite some time to come and does not take away the
need of
breeding efforts to create such elite palms in the first place.
Although
F1 hybrids in some cases slightly outyielded the E.g.
standard in
terms of
Crude Palm Oil per hectare (Tan, 1987), IRHO (1989), reporting on
one of
the broadest trials ever set up, found them to produce between 9 and
90 % of
commercial E.g., eliminating the prospect of hybrid plantings as
a feasible
proposition. Such results however need
careful interpretation:
1. Germplasm
collection, selection and breeding in E.g. were initiated
in the 1920's and
continue to give spectacular results (a.o. Rajanaidu
e.a., 1989). E.o. was first systematically collected in
rica,
up from the late sixties. One can
therefore state that the
oleifera
parents used underwent next to no selection or breeding. If
E.g. were to be collected the same way
(i.e. at random), an analogous
trial, but within
the species, would probably give similar results.
2. The oil of hybrid palms is richer in
unsaturated fatty acids and
therefore more
fluid than classical palm oil. In most
cases it is
fluid at room
temperature, and for use as a cooking oil under tropical
conditions it
will need no or next to no fractioning. Refining
of
E.g. oil under these conditions takes out
over 20 % of the Crude Palm
Oil as stearin.
Therefore, in terms of cooking oil for tropical con-
ditions,
IRHO's best hybrids actually outyielded
the E.g. standard.
3. Height increment of a hybrid plantation is
much lower than a classical
one and its
economic lifespan could be up to 3 times as long, depen-
ding on the type
of combination used. This character
should be appro-
priately
taken into consideration when evaluating the8 economical
feasibility of a
commercial venture.
Generally,
literature mentions low natural fruitset and high
bunch failure
in
hybrids and according to IRHO (1980), artificial pollination would be
inevitable. However, the extent of these problems proved
extremely
variable
between progenies (Arnaud, 1980; Schwendiman
e.a.,1982 and 1983)
and
strikingly high natural fertility was observed in hybrids of Surinamese
descent (Cloesen, 1987; Rao e.a., 1989).
Above
mentioned findings permit to conclude that the general prejudice
against
commercial feasibility of F1 hybrid plantings is not justified.
Especially
in the case of
planting
with E.g. impossible and where the primary objective of Oil Palm
culture
is not the export of CPO but the production of refined cooking oil
for the
local market, hybrids may prove an attractive alternative for areas
and
infrastructure otherwise obsolete.
1.
Identifying elite Elaeis oleifera
The
literature mentions three types of E.o., commonly
named
can,
Brazilian and Surinamese. These types
give very different hybrids
with
E.g., although remarkable differences have also been observed between
progenies
from the same origin (Meunier e.a.,
1976).
Palms
found in
group and
the ones encountered in
In
graphic
network. Those from the North, along the
highway towards
resembling
Surinamese, the others leaning towards the Central American type
(GhesquiŠre
e.a., 1987, Barcelos e.a., 1985). Nevertheless, some phenoty-
pic characters, such as the strikingly bigger fruitsize, clearly distin-
guish the Brazilians from both other types. Oleiferas from the
Peruvian
Amazon are similar to the ones found in the
&
Mejia, 19..).
The dwarf type palm endemic in
French
Guyana, which made Meunier (1975) distinguish it as
the subtype
"guyanensis".
1.1.
Selection parameters
Parents
in hybridization efforts preferably should show high productivity
as well
as good oil extraction.
Oleifera germplasm was first systematically collected in
recently
revealed the elite palms. In
only in
the eighties and field planting of collected palms began in earnest
in
1985. Therefore only very preliminary
production results could have
been
obtained up till now. A systematic prospection for the Surinamese
type of E.o. has never been carried out and selection of parent
palms for
high
Fresh Fruit Bunch (FFB) production is thus impossible, except for
the
Central American type.
This
however should not be considered a serious handicap. Nine to ten year
old pure
Surinamese oleiferas, planted 10 m apart in
maximum
of 15.5 kg of FFB per palm and per annum (Rao e.a., 1989), as com-
pared to
a mean of over 200 kg for commercial E.g. in that country. Their
hybrids
however, like the ones from other oleiferas, can outyield E.
guineensis in terms of FFB. This indicates that the contribution of E.
guineensis and the heterosis
effect play a far more important role in the
determination of the hybrid's FFB yield potential than does the oleifera
parent. Therefore, selection efforts should
concentrate on the parameters
determining
the oil extraction rate. These
characters, being less influen-
ced by the environment, can also reliably be
measured in wild populations.
1.2. In
search of genetic variability
Escobar
(1980), reporting on E.o. collected from
bia, found the whole of the studied population to
be very homogenous,
leaving
little scope for selection on oil content.
This is reflected in
very low
Standard Deviations, as illustrated in Table 1.
Far more diver-
sity was found in
e.a. (1985).
No systematic survey has been done on Surinamese oleifera
but
comparing
mentioned figures with the ones found by V.D.Woude
& Schut
(1975),
it may be clear that this subtype, except for Bunch Weight (BW),
Individual
Fruit weight (IF) and Oil to Mesocarp (O/M), compares very well
to both
others. It is clear also that spread,
and thus selection poten-
tial, is very high, especially if one takes into
account that the latter
study
refers to only 100 palms in a single population.
Few
authors reported on Oil to Bunch (O/B) in pure E.o.. The best values
found
were 7.5 % for Central American material (Escobar, 1980) and 10.2 %
for the
Kuala Lumpur Melanococca (KLM), which is considered
of Brazilian
origin (Rao e.a., 1989). In both these results, a significant portion
of
total O/B
comes from parthenocarpic fruit, which is virtually
absent in
Surinamese oleifera.
Combining data from V.D. Woude and Schut (1975) and
Martin
(1970), it can be calculated that the best individual Surinamese
oleifera found probably had an extraction rate over 9
%, parthenocarpic
fruitset NOT taken into account. Parthenocarpy
increases mean Oil to
Fruit and hence O/B. It is however also an indication
of an innate defi-
cient fertility and a predisposition for bunch
failure. One should there-
fore
select AGAINST parthenocarpy, as will be discussed
later.
It may
be clear from the above that a thorough collection effort in wild
populations
in
Brazilian germplasm.
The main handicap of this type is its low O/M.
However,
variability with respect to this character is considerable,
opening
great prospects for selection.
2.
Selecting a desirable type of hybrid
2.1.
Problems associated with hybrids
Perhaps
the most effective way to define a desirable hybrid begins with an
analysis
of reported shortcomings. The main
problems mentioned in the
literature
are deficient fertility and natural pollinization,
low oil
content,
excessive vegetative vigour and small fruitsize.
2.1.1.
Bunch development and fruitset
High
bunch failure and bad fruitset, which have been
attributed to a
combination
of reduced capacity to develop normal embryon sacs,
reduced
pollen
viability, problems in the release of pollen and low activity of
insects
on both male and female flowers, are mainly observed in hybrids
based on
Central American material (Arnaud, 1980; Schwendiman e.a., 1982
and 1983;
Baudoin e.a., 1984). None of these studies included Surinamese
progenies,
but indications are that fertility is not a problem. Cloesen
(1987)
observed neither parthenocarpy or bunch failure in
four Surinamese
F1 palms
nor in backcrosses to E.o. and Rao
e.a. (1989) also drew attention
to their
unusual fertility. The pure Surinamese oleifera is also reputed
to have
high F/B and remarkably low parthenocarpy, even in
rather isolated
wild
palms.
Sterling
e.a. (1988 B) suggested to take
advantage of the outspoken
parthenocarpy observed in Central American
hybrids for the development of
'parthenocarpic lines'. This pathway however seems rather risky. It is
true of
course that parthenocarpic fruits contain more mesocarp and hence
more oil
to fruit, but parthenocarpy also indicates an
underlying deficient
fertility. Although this kind of palms may produce well
in small plots
surrounded
by E.g., it is very doubtful that they would continue to do so
in pure
stands, where natural fruitset could well be
insufficient to
prevent
massive bunch failure. Artificial
pollination during the whole
lifespan
of a plantation can hardly be considered.
Furthermore, it would
annihilate
the benefit of reduced trunk height increment, since flowers
above eye
level would easily go undetected.
Chinchilla
e.a. (1990), in
- its hybrid and backcross to E.g. to be less attractive to
the pollinating
insects Elaeidobius kamerunicus and Mystrops costarricensis. Tan (1987),
however,
recorded a dramatic improvement of fruitset in
Brazilian hybrids
after
introduction of E. kamerunicus in
the weevil
to be able to breed in hybrid male inflorescences. The apparent
contradiction between both findings may be attributed to the different
odour of male inflorescences of the parental oleifera. The first
author
most
probably worked with Central American progenies, whose male inflores-
cences, contrary to E.g., lack the characteristic
strong anis odour at
anthesis (L¢pez, 1980) or
even spread a distasteful smell. The
male
inflorescence of the pure Surinamese oleifera having the
same colour and
fragrance
as E.g., there is no reason to believe that pollinating insects
would be
less active on its hybrid than on E.g.. The
lack of persistent
spathes around anthesizing
female flowers in Surinamese E.o. and hybrids,
contrary
to both other types, is likely to facilitate insect pollination
even
further. Apparent good fruitset in hybrid palms on
(
confirm
this hypothesis.
2.1.2.
Extraction rate
Although
hybrids with O/B as high as 30 % were mentioned to exist (Tam
e.a.,
1976), laboratory extraction rates in the range of 10 to 25 % are
more
commonly found in the literature, with the better results invariably
corresponding
to Brazilian material (Hardon, 1969, Obasola, 1969, Meunier
e.a., 1976, Tam
e.a., 1976, Escobar, 1980, Tan, 1987, Lubis e.a., 1987,
Sterling e.a., 1988 B, Mukesh
& Tan, 1989 etc.). Figures for Surinamese
hybrids
are given in Table 2.
Low F/B
and high parthenocarpy found by Lubis
in
attributed
to deficient pollination. M/F on the
other hand was far
better in
oleifera germplasm in Cloesen's observations.
Hardon
(1969) Tam e.a. (1976) and
confirm
that bunch quality parameters in hybrids are intermediate between
parental
types. Therefore, hybrids based on
selected Surinamese mother
palms
should have O/B comparable to what is commonly obtained with other
origins.
2.1.3.
Crown dimensions
Both
Brazilian and Central American hybrids are reputed to develop longer
and more
rigid fronds than E.g.. Therefore, Obasola (1969), Lubis e.a.
(1987)
and
planted
further apart, reducing yield per ha (at least in the first years
after
planting). Although high yields have
been obtained in hybrids
planted
as dense as 148 palms per ha up till the 13th year of age (Tan,
1987),
it is very doubtful they would continue to do so much longer. The
Surinamese
hybrid, to the contrary, has a vegetative development inter-
mediate
between both parental species and can be planted in densities of
160 or even 180 palms per hectare. Applying
such corrections to published
results,
Surinamese progenies outyield other origins in terms
of FFB/ha.
In
addition, their leaves, contrary to the stiff and flat habit in other
hybrids,
gently bend in a parabolic curve, assuring a better light distri-
bution in the canopy and less mutual overshading.
It would
be of interest to study crown dimensions in hybrid progenies of
dwarf oleiferas found in
these
palms is very similar to Surinamese E.o., but on
average they seem
to have
better F/B, considerably higher O/DM, less saturated oil and fruits
more than
double the size. On the other hand
however, they also seem less
fertile,
as reflected in a far higher percentage parthenocarpy
(Barcelos
e.a., 1985, V.D. Woude
and Schut, 1975).
2.1.4.
Size of bunch stalks and leaf petioles
Heavy
frond petioles in Brazilian and Central American hybrids reportedly
slow down
pruning and thick bunch stalks complicate harvesting operations
even
further (Tan, 1987). These characters
most certainly reduce the
benefit
of the lower height increment, since problems are likely to grow
with the
length of the palms. In Surinamese
hybrids, bunch stalks are
comparable
to those of E.g. and leaf petiole cross section is smaller.
2.1.5. Fruitsize
Individual
(fertile) fruits in pure E.o. are small, averaging
slightly
above 3
grams in Central American types. Surinamese
fruits are even
smaller. In
most
populations average over 7 g.
Fruitsize
in hybrids is scarcely documented in the literature. Generally,
figures
hover around 7 to 8 g (Obasola, 1969, Sterling e.a., 1988 B),
unless Dura (or Tenera) were used as guineensis parent (Escobar, 1980,
Mukesh and Tan, 1989).
In the latter case, extremes up to 18 g have been
reported. Curiously however, Brazilian hybrids do not
seem to give bigger
fruits
than others and Surinamese fruits do not seem smaller (Meunier,
1976, Cloesen, 1987).
It is thus not obvious where to search in order to
optimize
this character and the influence of the guineensis
parent may well
be
decisive. It should also be noted that
not all commercial lines of E.g.
have
significantly bigger fruits.
2.2.
Take advantage of desirable properties
Desirable
characteristics, shared by all types of hybrids include reduced
trunk
height increment; an oil richer in insaturated fatty
acids, carotenes
and tocopherols; a brighter colour of
mature fruit and a high degree of
tolerance,
or even resistance to next to all economically important pests
and
diseases of E.g. in
discussed
in this article.
2.2.1.
Reduced trunk height increment
Length
increment is a major factor determining the cost of harvesting and
the economic
lifespan of a plantation. Lubis e.a. (1987) reported annual
height
increments of 18 cm for Surinamese hybrids, as compared to 32 and
34 cm
for Brazilian and Central American ones, and 46 cm for commercial
E.g.. Cloesen (1987) found height increment of Surinamese hybrids
(about
17
cm/yr) to be comparable to pure Colombian oleiferas
and estimated their
economic
lifespan nearly 3 times as long as E.g. and at least 1.5 times as
long as
Colombian hybrids in the same experiment.
It
should be mentioned, however, that the smaller habit of the Surinamese
hybrid
also reflects in a smaller trunk volume.
Sterling e.a. (1987 and
1988 A),
studying 'compact' material, attributed their strong tendency
for
alternate periods of high and low production to reduced carbohydrate
storage
capacity in their smaller trunks. The
same problem could occur in
Surinamese
hybrids when planted in areas with a pronounced dry season.
2.2.2.
Higher unsaturation of oil
The mesocarp oil of pure E.o. melts
at 13-14øC, as compared to some 24øC
for
classical CPO. The former therefore
would not need fractionation for
use as a
salad oil, even in temperate climates. Producing
vegetable oil
for use
in tropical conditions, Palm Oil would be cristalized
at 22øC and
refining
efficiency (olein/CPO) after double fractionation
would be about
72 %, under conditions at
results
on hybrid oils were found in the literature, but indications are
that the
latter are fluid at room temperature and that their melting point
is 22øC
or lower. As a result, fractionation
would be obsolete and overall
refining
efficiency would most certainly exceed 90 %.
Oil unsaturation tends to be higher in Central American oleiferas and
hybrids
than in both other origins, although figures by Tam e.a.
(1976)
suggest
that promising palms are to be found also in the progenies of the
"Kuala
Lumpur Melanococca", which is considered
Brazilian. The few
reported
values for Surinamese material are within the range found in
unsaturation is very close to the average
between parent palms, suggesting
that
selection of the guineensis parent may be equally
important.
2.2.3.
Bright colour of ripe fruit
The clear colour at ripeness of the hybrid
fruit, as compared to E.g.
(nigrescens type) must result in
less "omitted" bunches and less unripe
harvesting. The Surinamese hybrid is particularly
interesting in this
respect :
like its oleifera parent, ripe fruits are bright
orange, com-
parable
to the E. guineensis 'virescens'
type, even though immature fruits
may be
black.
2.2.4.
Carotenes and tocopherols
The
hybrid's oil is also richer in carotenes (provitamin
A) and tocopherols
(vitamin E). However, untill refining methods will be developed that do
not
completely eliminate these nutritionally important components, these
properties
can hardly be used as an argument in favor of hybrid oils.
Proposed
strategy
Planting
material for the first Oil Palm plantings in
in the
country itself. As superior seeds from
the
cially available in the eighties, local breeding
efforts were discontinued,
but the
corresponding know-how still exists. Although
only
country affected by Fatal Yellowing, no commercial seed house has a
breeding programme for interspecific
hybrids and a seed garden with
selected
Surinamese E.o. does not exist. It is therefore considered more
than worthwile that a renewed selection and breeding capacity be
set up in
the
country. The Ministry of Agriculture's
Palm Research Centre (POC)
would
herein collaborate with the Common Vegetable Oils amd
Fats Companies
(GPOV).
Most
known wild populations of E.o. in
that
selection of parent palms, as well as hybrid seed production could be
done
right on the spot. Only later on, E.o. seed gardens would be laid
out,
using elite material identified in the first phase. However, even
preliminary
selection results are expected no sooner than within two years.
In the
mean time, hybrid seed from elite oleifera of other
origins should
be
imported so that replanting can be initiated without delay. A project
proposal
has been formulated in order to obtain international financing for
the
import component of such an effort.
Conclusion
The
Surinamese Oil Palm Industry will be wiped out, unless areas devastated
by Fatal
Yellowing are replanted as soon as possible.
F1 interspecific
hybrids
with E. oleifera are the only planting material
proven to survive
and
produce in such areas. These hybrids can
be produced readily, and the
best
progenies will outyield the former E.g. plantings, at
least in terms
of
Refined Palm Oil per Hectare.
Elite oleifera parents, to the best of our present knowledge,
should be
sought in
cantly longer economic life as well as improved
natural fertility and
would be
easier to harvest than any other type. A
project proposal has
been
worked out, aimed at such a genuine genetic improvement effort based
on
national resources.
__________________________________________
The
author, Henri-Paul Cloesen, was Head of the
Agronomical Service (LD)
at
Victoria Oil Palm Estate (Suriname) between 1985 and 1987. The present
article
is a literature study.
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Table 1. SPREAD IN BUNCH AND FRUIT QUALITY PARAMETERS
in E. oleifera of
different
origins.
8MIN 0.7
- 33.5 32.9
- 19.5 7.9
25.9 1.1
MAX 3.4
- 74.3 64.4
- 42.1 23.3
51.5 4.3
MEAN 1.9
- 61.7 45.1
- 31.9 15.3
39.6 2.8
SD EST. 0.68
- 10.20 7.88
- 5.65 3.85
6.40 0.80
CV EST.
35.53 - 16.53
17.46 - 17.71
25.16 16.16 28.57
MIN 0.9
1.8 11.2 14.6
- 16.1 -
10.8 3.45
MAX 18.0
28.8 90.5 62.3
- 57.2 -
56.9 14.66
MEAN 6.7
10.6 68.94 46.0
- 42.84 -
41.1 7.87
SD 3.67
- 15.74 6.51
- 6.52 -
- 2.30
CV 54.78
- 26.50 14.15 -
15.23 - -
29.22
BW (**) St/B
F/B M/F O/M
O/DM K/F Sh/F IF
MIN -
15.2 - -
12.7 - -
- -
MAX -
21.8 - -
24.8 - -
- -
MEAN 11.6
18.7 60.8 36.5
18.8 - 15.9
47.6 3.31
CV -
9.4 4.7 5.5
15.4 - 8.5
3.9 11.65
SD CALC. -
1.76 2.86 2.01
2.90 - 1.35
1.86 0.39
MIN
CALC. - 15.2
55.1 32.5 13.0
- 13.2 43.9
2.53
MAX
CALC. - 22.2
66.5 40.5 24.6
- 18.6 51.3
4.09
* FOR
**
REFERS ONLY TO COLOMBIAN OLEIFERAS, 6TH-10TH YEAR AFTER PLANTING
Table 2. BUNCH CHARACTERISTICS in Surinamese hybrids
Source F/B M/F
M/B O/M O/B N
Observations
Lubis
(1987)F
33.4 67.5 22.5
35.8 8.1 ? E.g.= Pisifera
P
16.2 89.9 14.6
17.9 2.6
T
49.6 37.1 10.7
Cloesen
(1987) 73.9 59.0
43.6 15.6 4 E.g.
= Pisifera
O/M estimated as 35 %
No parth. fruitset.
Lubis
(1975)F
41.5 46.7 19.4
38.6 7.5 42 E.g. = Deli Dura
(in Meunier
P 14.3
88.5 12.7 24.7
3.1
e.a., 1976)
T 55.8 32.0
10.6
F :
Fertile fruits P : Parthenocarpic
fruits T : Total
Table 3 : UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS IN OIL (%)
ORIGIN E.o. Hybrid E.g.
OBSERVATIONS/SOURCE
unspecif.
68.9 9
58.3 7
Lelydorp 68.2 - 73.7 Means 2 populations3
69.8 - 74.2 7 analyses2
unspecif.
60.0 - 77.7 All known populations6
58.3 7
KLM (*) 62.3 44.2
1
77.9 - 82.6 57.0 - 69.0 49.8
Mother = E.g. Dura5
PERU (**) 63.6 1 Population8
unspecif.
78.7 63.9 49.9 Hyb. prob.
Colombian9
Monter¡a Up to 82 Up to 75 4
78.7
67.0 54.9 E.g. = La M‚4
78.7 62.7 47.0 E.g. = Yangambi4
Turbo
71.7 (**) 65.15 44.2
1
(*) The Kuala Lumpur Melanococca
is considered Brazilian
(**)
Palms found in
(***)Sample
heavily oxidized. This may have lowered
% unsaturated acids.
(1) Hardon (1969)
(4) Meunier e.a.
(1976) (7) Lubis e.a. (1987)
(2)
Martin (1970) (5) Tam e.a. (1976) (8)
Kahn & M. (19..)
(3) V.D.
Woude & S.(1975)(6) Barcelos e.a. (1985) (9) Rao e.a. (1989)
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
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